The lowest manmade temperature achieved to date is 450 picokelvin above absolute zero. It was achieved by a team of scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, the USA, led by Aaron Leanhardt. The team members were: A.E. Leanhardt, T.A. Pasquini, M. Saba, A. Shirotzek, Y. Shin, D. Kielpinski, D.E. Pritchard, and W. Ketterle. Their research was published in Science magazine on 12 September 2003.